Human Health and Diseases

Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. The parasites initially multiply asexually within the liver cells and then attack the RBCs resulting in their rupture.

• Sexual stages (gametocytes) develop in red blood cells.

• When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an infected person, these parasites enter the mosquito's body and undergo further development.

Nicotine is present in tobacco and it activates adrenal medulla to release catecholamines into circulation, so (A) → II

Morphine acts as an effective sedative and painkiller. It is an opioid, so $(\mathrm{B}) \rightarrow$ III

Heroin acts as a depressant and slows down body function, so (C) → IV

Cocaine acts as a stimulant and causes a sense of euphoria and increased energy, so (D) → I

Thus, $(\mathrm{A}) \rightarrow \mathrm{II},(\mathrm{B}) \rightarrow \mathrm{III},(\mathrm{C}) \rightarrow \mathrm{IV},(\mathrm{D}) \rightarrow \mathrm{I}$

Morphine is a very effective sedative and painkiller and is very useful in patients who have undergone surgery.

Interferon belongs to cytokine barrier of innate immunity.

Antibiotics are used for restricting the growth of bacteria.

Colostrum, secreted by the mother during the initial days of lactation, is abundant in $\operatorname{IgA}$ antibody. IgG antibody passes through the placenta and provides natural passive immunity.

Plasmodium reproduces asexually in liver cells. Plasmodium parasite reproduce asexually in red blood cells, bursting the RBCs ad causing cycles of fever and other symptoms. Released parasites infect new red blood cell. Female anopheles mosquito takes up gametocytes with blood meal.

Fertilization and development take place in the mosquito's gut.

Sexual stages of plasmodium (gametocytes) develop in RBC.

Bone marrow and thymus are primary lymphoid organs while tonsils, spleen are secondary lymphoid organs.

The correct answer will include : A, B and C only.

A neoplasm is a general term for any abnormal growth of tissue.

Neoplastic characteristics of cells refer to

(1) A mass of proliferating cell.

(2) Rapid growth of cells.

(3) Invasion and damage to the surrounding tissue.

Cancer specifically refers to malignant neoplasms, which are cancerous and invasive.

Benign tumours remain confined to their original location. Thus, $D$ is not included in the answer.

The malignant tumours, on the other hand are a mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumour cells. These cells grow very rapidly, invading and damaging the surrounding normal tissues.

Statements A and C are correct:

A: Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are indeed used to detect cancers in internal organs.

C: $ \alpha $-interferon can activate the immune system of cancer patients, aiding in the destruction of tumors.

However, statements B, D, and E are incorrect:

B: Chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancerous cells, not non-cancerous cells.

D: $ \alpha $-interferons, not chemotherapeutic drugs, are considered biological response modifiers.

E: In the case of leukemia, blood cell counts typically increase, not decrease.

In primary lymphoid organs such as bone marrow and thymus, immature lymphocytes develop into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. After this maturation process, these lymphocytes move to secondary lymphoid organs, where they can interact with antigens. Secondary lymphoid organs include the spleen, lymph nodes, and Peyer's patches of the small intestine, as well as the appendix. These are critical sites for the interaction between lymphocytes and antigens.

Innate immunity refers to the non-specific defense mechanisms that an individual is born with. It works by providing various types of barriers to prevent foreign agents from entering the body. Unlike acquired immunity, innate immunity is not specific to particular pathogens and does not involve memory cells that recognize previous infections.

In contrast, acquired immunity is specific to certain pathogens and involves memory cells that help recognize and respond more efficiently to repeated infections by the same pathogen. The immune response mediated by B-lymphocytes is known as humoral immunity, while the response mediated by T-lymphocytes is termed cell-mediated immunity.

Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two small called light chains and two longer called heavy chains. Hence, an antibody is represented as $\mathrm{H}_2 \mathrm{L}_2$.

In an antibody molecule, antigen binding site is located at N-terminal region.

Emphysema - Damaged alveolar walls and decreased respiratory surface

Angina pectoris - Acute chest pain when not enough oxygen is reaching to heart muscle

Glomerulonephritis - Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney

Tetany - Rapid spasms in muscle due to low $\mathrm{Ca}^{++}$in body fluid

The correct answer is Option C: Both Statement I and Statement II are correct.

Let's break down why each statement is true:

Statement I: Antibiotics are chemicals produced by microbes that kill other microbes.

This statement is accurate. Antibiotics are naturally occurring substances produced by certain microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. These substances have the ability to inhibit the growth or kill other microorganisms, particularly bacteria.

Statement II: Antibodies are chemicals formed in the body that eliminate microbes.

This statement is also correct. Antibodies are specialized proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. These antibodies bind to specific antigens (markers) on the surface of the microbes, marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

In summary, both antibiotics and antibodies play critical roles in combating microbial infections, but they operate through different mechanisms. Antibiotics are produced by microbes and directly kill or inhibit the growth of other microbes, while antibodies are produced by the body's immune system and specifically target and neutralize microbes.

To solve this matching problem, we need to pair each item from List - I with the corresponding item in List - II. Let's analyze each pair:

(A) Malignant tumors - Malignant tumors are characterized by uncontrolled growth and the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. This process is known as Metastasis.

(B) MALT - MALT stands for Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue. It is a part of the immune system that includes tissues such as the tonsils and the Peyer's patches in the intestines. Therefore, it is associated with Lymphoid tissue.

(C) NACO - NACO stands for the National AIDS Control Organization, which is involved in the fight against AIDS in India. Thus, it relates to AIDS.

(D) $\alpha$-Interferons - $\alpha$-Interferons are a group of signaling proteins used in the treatment of various diseases, including some cancers, by helping the immune system destroy tumors. Therefore, they are connected to the action to Destroy tumors.

Now, let's match these correctly:

• (A) Malignant tumors - (III) Metastasis
• (B) MALT - (IV) Lymphoid tissue
• (C) NACO - (II) AIDS
• (D) $\alpha$-Interferons - (I) Destroy tumors

Thus, the correct option is:

Option A: A-III, B-IV, C-II, D-I

Therefore, the answer is: Option A

To match the items in List I with those in List II, we need to understand the functions and roles of each item.

Here are the explanations for each item:

(A) B-Lymphocytes: These are a type of white blood cell that plays a significant role in humoral immunity (part of the adaptive immune system). They produce antibodies to neutralize pathogens. This matches with III - Produce an army of proteins in response to pathogens.

(B) Interferons: These are proteins produced by various cells in response to viral infections. They are part of innate immunity and help in reducing the spread of viruses. This matches with IV - Innate immunity.

(C) T-Lymphocytes: These are another type of white blood cell, crucial for cell-mediated immunity. They do not produce antibodies but directly attack infected cells. This matches with II - Cell mediated immunity.

(D) Colostrum: This is the first form of milk produced after childbirth, rich in antibodies, providing passive immunity to the newborn. This matches with I - Passive immunity.

Now, matching these explanations with the options given:

Option C: A-III, B-IV, C-II, D-I

Therefore, the correct answer is Option C.

Autoimmune disorders are conditions in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues. Analysis of the given diseases in the context of autoimmune disorders includes:

• Myasthenia gravis: This is an autoimmune disorder where antibodies interfere with the communication between nerves and muscles, leading to muscle weakness.
• Rheumatoid arthritis: Another autoimmune disease where the immune system mistakenly attacks the lining of the joints, causing inflammation and potentially leading to joint deformity.
• Gout: This is not an autoimmune disease; it's a form of arthritis caused by excess uric acid in the bloodstream, resulting in the formation of crystals in joints, not by immune system activity attacking body tissues.
• Muscular dystrophy: This refers to a group of genetic diseases characterized by progressive weakness and loss of muscle mass, not caused by an autoimmune response.
• Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): It is an autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks various body systems including skin, joints, and organs like kidneys and heart.

With this analysis, the correct diseases identified as autoimmune disorders are Myasthenia gravis, Rheumatoid arthritis, and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE). Therefore, among the provided options, the correct answer is:

Option B: A, B & E only

To correctly match List I (Diseases) with List II (Pathogen Types), we need to understand the causative agents for each disease listed in List I.

Details for each disease:

• Typhoid: This is a bacterial infection caused by Salmonella typhi. Hence, it matches with "Bacteria".
• Leishmaniasis: This disease is caused by parasitic protozoans of the genus Leishmania. Therefore, it corresponds to "Protozoa".
• Ringworm: Despite its name, ringworm is not caused by a worm. It’s a fungal infection on the skin, caused by various types of fungi. So, Ringworm should be associated with "Fungus".
• Filariasis: Also known as lymphatic filariasis, this condition is caused by infection with parasites classified as nematodes (roundworms) of the family Filarioidea. Thus, it matches with "Nematode".

With this understanding:

• A should be paired with IV (Bacteria).
• B should be paired with III (Protozoa).
• C should be paired with I (Fungus).
• D should be paired with II (Nematode).

Corresponding to the options provided:

• Option A: A-I, B-III, C-II, D-IV - Incorrect
• Option B: A-IV, B-III, C-I, D-II - Correct!
• Option C: A-III, B-I, C-IV, D-II - Incorrect
• Option D: A-II, B-IV, C-III, D-I - Incorrect

Therefore, the correct answer is Option B: A-IV, B-III, C-I, D-II.

To solve this matching problem, we need to identify which plant or application each substance in List I is correctly associated with in List II.

List I (Substances) and List II (their sources or uses):

• Cocaine - Cocaine is derived from the coca plant, known scientifically as Erythroxylum. This matches with III in List II.
• Heroin - Heroin is derived from the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. This corresponds to IV in List II.
• Morphine - Like heroin, Morphine is also derived from the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. However, morphine is also directly associated with its use as a sedative in surgery, making I a valid association for its usage.
• Marijuana - Marijuana is derived from Cannabis sativa, which corresponds to II in List II.

With this information:

• A (Cocaine) matches with III (from Erythroxylum).
• B (Heroin) matches with IV (Papaver somniferum).
• C (Morphine) as an effective sedative in surgery matches with I.
• D (Marijuana) matches with II (Cannabis sativa).

The correct matching based on the provided options is:

Option D: A-III, B-IV, C-I, D-II

This option correctly matches the substance with their respective sources or primary uses.

To correctly match the items in List I with List II, we need to understand each term and its relationship:

• Common Cold is primarily caused by Rhinoviruses. Hence, A is linked with III.
• Haemozoin is a byproduct of the digestion of blood by parasites such as Plasmodium (which causes malaria). Therefore, B corresponds with I.
• Widal test is a diagnostic test for Typhoid fever, caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. Thus, C matches with II.
• Allergy can be triggered by many allergens, including Dust Mites, which are a common cause of respiratory and dermatological allergies. Consequently, D aligns with IV.

Based on this, the matching should be:

A-III, B-I, C-II, D-IV

Therefore, the correct answer is:

Option C: A-III, B-I, C-II, D-IV

The correct answer is option no. (A) as both statements I and II are correct.

In humans, the bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including lymphocytes are produced.

Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro-environments for the development and maturation of T-lymphocytes.

Options (B), (C) and (D) are incorrect.

Among the options provided, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) caused by bacteria are typically curable with antibiotics, while those caused by viruses are not curable but can be managed.

Option A : HIV infection and Trichomoniasis - HIV is a viral infection and currently has no cure, but it can be managed with antiretroviral therapy. Trichomoniasis is a parasitic infection and is curable with antibiotics.

Option B : Syphilis and Trichomoniasis - Both syphilis and trichomoniasis are curable. Syphilis is a bacterial infection and can be cured with antibiotics, typically penicillin. Trichomoniasis, as mentioned above, is a parasitic infection that can also be cured with antibiotics.

Option C : Hepatitis – B and Genital herpes - Both are viral infections and, while their symptoms can be managed, they are not curable.

Option D : Genital herpes and Genital warts - Both are caused by viruses (Herpes simplex and Human papillomavirus respectively) and, while their symptoms can be managed, they are not curable.

So, the correct answer is :

Option B : Syphilis and trichomoniasis.

(A) Cytokine barriers - (II) Interferons

Cytokines are a broad and loose category of small proteins that are important in cell signaling. Their release has an effect on the behavior of cells around them. It can be due to immune response or inflammation. Interferons are a type of cytokine. They are released by host cells in response to the presence of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or tumor cells. They allow for communication between cells to trigger the protective defenses of the immune system that eradicate pathogens or tumors.

(B) Cellular barriers - (III) Neutrophils and Macrophages

Cellular barriers are formed by immune cells that prevent the spread and movement of foreign substances in the body. Neutrophils and macrophages are types of white blood cells and are part of the immune system. Neutrophils are the most abundant type of granulocytes and the most abundant type of white blood cells in most mammals. They form an essential part of the innate immune system. Their functions vary from the destruction of bacteria and fungi to the stimulation of other immune cells. Macrophages, on the other hand, are a type of white blood cell that engulfs and digests cellular debris, foreign substances, microbes, cancer cells, and anything else that does not have the type of proteins specific to healthy body cells on its surface in a process called phagocytosis.

(C) Physiological barriers - (IV) Tears and Saliva

Physiological barriers are those which use the body’s own natural processes to prevent infection. For instance, both tears and saliva contain enzymes such as lysozyme which help to break down the cell walls of many kinds of bacteria.

(D) Physical barriers - (I) Mucus coating of the respiratory tract

Physical barriers are the body's first line of defense against pathogens. These barriers are structural in nature. The mucus coating of the respiratory tract is a great example. It traps pathogens, dust, and other particles that enter the nasal passage with each breath, and because the mucus is constantly moved by cilia, it is eventually coughed or sneezed out, or swallowed and destroyed by stomach acids. Thus, it acts as a physical barrier, preventing pathogens from reaching the lungs.

Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It can be effectively treated with antibiotics, especially when detected early.

Hepatitis B, HIV Infection, and Genital Herpes are caused by viruses. These viral infections can be managed with antiviral therapy but they are typically not completely curable.

So, the correct answer is :

Option A : Gonorrhoea

The correct answer is option (A) because using conventional methods of diagnosis like serum and urine analysis, etc, do not help in early diagnosis. Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction [PCR] and Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA) are some of the techniques that serve the purpose of early diagnosis.

The correct answer is option (D) as

$\bullet$ Heroin belongs to the category of opioids and it is a depressant that slows down body functions.

$\bullet$ Marijuana is known for its effect on the cardiovascular system of the body.

$\bullet$ Cocaine interferes with the transport of the neurotransmitter dopamine.

Morphine is used is a sedative and painkiller.

Option (1) is the correct answer as the body is able to differentiate between ‘self’ and ‘non-self’ and the cell-mediated immune response is responsible for the graft rejection.

Option (2) is incorrect as body of higher vertebrates have the ability to differentiate foreign organisms from self cells.

Option (4) is incorrect as the autoimmune response occur when the body’s immune system fails to recognize ‘self’ from ‘non-self’ and starts destroying the body’s own cells.

Option (a) is the correct answer because cellular barriers include NK cells, macrophages (monocytes) and neutrophils (PMNL).

Cytokine barriers include interferons.

Physical barriers include mucus membranes and skin.

Physiological barriers include HCl in gastric juice, saliva and tears etc.

Option (c) is the correct answer as autoimmune disorder is a condition where body defense mechanism recognises its own cells as foreign bodies. Sometimes, due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the body attacks self cells.

Rheumatoid arthritis is an example where body attacks self cells (synovial membrane).

So Statement I is correct but Statement II is incorrect.

Option (d) is the correct answer as acquired immunity is a specific type of defence which is not present at the time of birth.

Option (c), (a) and (b) are true statements and hence cannot be the answer.

Anamnestic response or secondary immune response is a highly intensified response due to memory of first encounter.

When our body encounters a pathogen for the first time then the body elicits the primary immune response.

When there is a subsequent encounter with the same pathogen, secondary or anamnestic immune response is elicited.

The correct answer is Option D: ELISA Technique.

Explanation:

Option A: Hybridization Technique - This technique, including Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH), involves the pairing of single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules with complementary sequences, allowing the detection of specific nucleic acids within a complex mixture. It's widely used for gene mapping, diagnosis of genetic disorders, and identification of infectious agents. However, its application is more towards locating specific sequences rather than early detection of diseases.

Option B: Western Blotting Technique - This is a protein analysis method that involves the separation of proteins via gel electrophoresis, followed by their transfer to a membrane and detection using antibodies. It's used for identifying specific proteins in a sample and understanding protein size or abundance, but it is not primarily used for early disease detection.

Option C: Southern Blotting Technique - This method involves the transfer of DNA fragments from an agarose gel to a membrane followed by hybridization with a labeled DNA probe to detect specific DNA sequences. It's widely used in molecular biology for gene detection and mapping but not necessarily for early disease detection.

Option D: ELISA Technique - The Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a popular technique used for detecting and quantifying substances such as peptides, proteins, antibodies, and hormones. In the context of disease detection, ELISA is exceptionally valuable because it can be used to detect specific antigens or antibodies in blood samples, making it a crucial tool for early diagnosis of diseases. This might include viral infections (like HIV), bacterial infections, and autoimmune diseases. Its sensitivity and specificity make ELISA particularly useful for early detection, when the levels of the target molecule might be very low but detecting it is critical for effective treatment.

Therefore, for early detection of diseases, the ELISA Technique stands out among the options given for its ability to detect specific biomolecules related to diseases at an early stage, facilitating early diagnosis and treatment.